Arable farming, cattle breeding, crafts, hunting

Horticulture began to develop.

The most widespread crops were cereals (millet, rice), legumes (peas, various beans), and tuberous species (taro, sweet potatoes, yams).

The production of irrigated rice, sugar cane, onions and ginger increased throughout the 17^th,18^th, & 19^th centuries with the crops being harvested twice per year.

The Dutch also introduced the local people to the technology of growing tobacco.

The communal fields were cultivated by women under the guidance of certain men who were known as the “elders of the

field”. In addition to this, every woman and every man worked on their plots.

Fishing, crab and oyster catching in the 17th century were exclusively women’s occupations, whereas in the 18 and 19th centuries it became men’s work. For fishing bows and harpoons were used and they set up nets and made dams. But the main occupation for men was hunting. They hunted singly and in groups. Sometimes hunters of 2 or 3 neighbouring communities could unite. They hunted collectively either with stakes and dogs or with the help of snares. The prey was divided-up in the following way: the hunters kept the heads, bones, horns and skins of animals, and the remainder of the meat among all residents. Domestic animals included pigs, dogs and chickens. Some homeowners had cats. In the 19th century, horses were imported from China but were used only for riding. The food was usually cooked by women. A hearth was made of stones outside the house. Meat was rare on the table. The entrails of animals were salted and salt treatment was also used for unscaled fish. Salt was extracted by evaporating seawater in troughs. They ate with their hands, sometimes helping themselves with coconut shells. Starting from the 18th century, they began to use sticks and porcelain bowls.

Grains were ground using a mortar and pestle.

Rice, sweet potatoes and peas were spiced using red pepper. Fruit (bananas, oranges, persimmons) played a secondary role.

Beginning in the 3rd century, they used weapons made of deer antlers, whereas in the 16th century, they began to buy iron arrowheads and knives from the Chinese and daggers from the Japanese.

By the 17th century, they began to smelt iron and make weapons themselves.

Boats were hollowed out of wood. Bamboo was used to make vessels for storing grain and water. Often water was stored in gourds.

The Taiwanese were engaged in spinning, weaving and basket weaving. Bamboo fibres and hemp were used for weaving. Weaving was a man's business. Houses were built from bamboo on a loose foundation. The roof was covered with thatch. They climbed into the house by a ladder. Every five years the houses were demolished and new ones were built. Weapons, objects of labour and household items were all kept in the house. They slept on reindeer skins. Since the 19th century, wealthier people began to use beds. Cowrie shells, necklaces of coral, bamboo, stone, feathers and bone bracelets were all used for decoration. Hair was plucked-out at the temples. The tattoo symbolized affiliation with a particular tribe, clan or age group. Soot and madder plant sap were both used as paint.

Men got married at the age of 21. The groom's relatives engaged in matchmaking. It was necessary to present a gift to the groom's parents or the bride's girlfriends. In some communities, the bride and groom exchanged broken front teeth. Accepting the gift meant agreeing to the marriage. Economic ties were weak, and families easily broke up at the initiative of either side.

Violation of religious prohibitions was considered the most serious of crimes for which there was a fine in the form of rice, meat, skins or wine. Theft, murder, and adultery were considered crimes. In such cases, the custom of revenge was in effect.

The plaintiff and the defendant fought a duel. For his wife’s adultery, the husband took 2 or 3 pigs from the opponent. The Taiwanese worshipped the spirits of the mountains and the sea and sacrificed to them with meat and fish, sprinkling them with water. If a person died in battle the bodily remains were sacrificed to the spirits. The corpse was placed in a small hut, built on the branches of a tree, and shot at with bows or covered with a pile of stones into which a flag was placed.

As we can see, the cult of ancestors, fetishism, and animism was widespread among the tribes. The interpretation of dreams was also popular. The tribal pantheon had paired Deities. We believe that they symbolized both masculine and feminine principles.

The main Deities were Tamagisanchak – the god of rain, and Takarupada – the goddess of thunder, representing beauty and fertility.

Hamo and Pagatao were associated with a solar cult. All tribes believed in good and evil spirits of nature, semi-mythical heroes. The cult of human ancestors and the cult of plant ancestors were widespread. The agricultural cycle was associated with seven holidays accompanied by ritual libations and orgies.

In the 19th century, the funeral rites changed, the body of the deceased being interred without ceremony in an undesignated place. Some tribes preserved legends about the flood, after which the surviving brother and sister became husband and wife and many aborigines descended from them. In folklore, many stories were about shooting at the sun. This plot is reminiscent of the Chinese legend about the archer Yi, the sun and the moon pursuing each other and the immaculate conception, the emergence of agriculture, hunting, fishing, plants and animals.

Conquerors

Dutch Formosa existed until 1661. This year, the Dutch Fort Zeeland (Taiwan), headed by the Swede Frederick Coyett, capitulated to an army of refugees from China, who had

remained loyal to the overthrown Ming dynasty and led by Admiral Koxinga. Today Fort Zeeland is part of the Anlin district of Tainan.

At that time, Taiwan was called Dongning. Under Koxinga and his descendants, the Chinese population of Taiwan (or the so-called then Dongning increased to 200,000 people.

Supporters of Zheng Chenggong created an independent state on the island to fight the Manchus. The latter at this time overthrew the Ming dynasty in China and established their own

Qing dynasty. Subsequently, it took the Manchus 22 years to subdue Taiwan to the Qing dynasty emperors in 1683 following an economic blockade and with the help of

the Dutch. The island, in 1683, was included in the Chinese province of Fujian.

The eastern shores of the island remained uninhabited throughout the 18th century. In the 19th century, Amoy traders sowed the entire territory of Taiwan with rice and tea that they mainly exported to Japan.

The 1842 census showed that Taiwan had 2.5 million inhabitants.

May and June of 1874 marked the so-called Taiwan campaign – the Japanese military operation on the island of Taiwan, which was then under the sovereignty of the Qing dynasty. The campaign was a reaction to the killing of Japanese nationals (the Ryukyu State trading junk team) by Taiwanese aborigines. Japanese troops managed to capture the southern part of the island and demanded that the Qing dynasty assume responsibility for the killings.

Great Britain held the role of intermediary, and Japan withdrew its troops in exchange for the payment of reparations by the Chinese.

Shipwrecks were not uncommon off the southern coast of Taiwan and led to the growth of sea robberies, acts of piracy restricted to attacks on ships washed ashore or stopped in calm waters near the coastline.

In Taiwan, which by 1871 was under the sovereignty of the Chinese Qing dynasty, a diplomatic incident took place. Residents of Taiwanese tribes of the Mudan village killed 54 Japanese fishermen from the Miyakojima island of the Ryukyu archipelago.

In Taiwan, which by 1871 was under the sovereignty of the Chinese Qing dynasty, a diplomatic incident took place. Residents of Taiwanese tribes of the Mudan village killed 54 Japanese fishermen from the Miyakojima island of the Ryukyu archipelago.

The fishermen were accidentally washed ashore by a wave to the southeastern coast of Taiwan.

The main instigators of the massacre were natives from the Kuarut and Bo-otang tribes.

The 12 surviving crew members were rescued by the Chinese and taken to Taiwan, from where they were handed over to Fujian officials. Later, by agreement, they were sent home.

Ryukyu Archipelago Governor Oyama Tsunayoshi, deputy head of Kagoshima Province, reported to the Japanese central government, calling for revenge. Prudently perhaps, any decision on the issue was postponed.

In 1873, a second similar incident occurred when Taiwanese natives attacked a Japanese ship from the village of Kashiwa, Okayama Prefecture. The ship was wrecked in Taiwanese waters and four crew members were beaten to death.

This event infuriated the Japanese public, which actively demanded the most decisive measures from the authorities. Foreign Minister Soejima Taeomi, sent to the court of Emperor Qing, received an audience with Emperor Tongzhi and appealed to the Chinese side with a demand to compensate for the losses.

Responding, the Qing Dynasty Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that although Taiwan belongs to China, the Taiwanese aborigines are southern barbarians who do not recognize the Qing emperor's supreme power.

Therefore, the latter is not responsible for their actions.

We should note, that until 1895, that is before the transfer of the island to Japan under the Shimonoseki Treaty, the island was divided into two zones:

– the western plains, where the main population was made up of migrants from mainland China; here also lived the indigenous agricultural population – “plain settlers” (pinbu);

– the eastern mountainous zone, where since the 17th century there were restrictions on Chinese migration (the so-called fenshanming – a decree on the closure of the mountains). There was no Chinese administration there, and the local population (Shenfan or Gaoshan – "highlanders") was ruled by elders.

Meanwhile, in Japan, public discontent was growing fuelled by political crisis, unpopular reforms and the outbreak of the Saga uprising.

Encouraged by the Americans, the Japanese government decided to use the recent incidents as an excuse to relieve social tension within the country and carry out a punitive expedition.

In April 1874, the Imperial Adviser Okumu Shigenobu, was appointed head of the Taiwan appanage office, and Lieutenant General Tsugumichi Saigo was appointed the commander of the troops of this office. In addition to the ground forces, impressive naval forces were also involved, including the armoured corvette Ryujo, built in England not long before these events. But at the last moment, the government halted preparations due to protests from the British and US ambassadors, who said the invasion of Taiwan "would destabilize peace in the Far East."

Despite international pressure, in mid-May 1874, the 3,000-strong contingent of the Imperial Japanese Army under the command of Tsugumichi Saigo unauthorizedly set off to Taiwan. A little later, the Japanese authorities were forced to recognize the legitimacy of the campaign. On 22 May 1874, the Japanese gathered their troops in the Taiwanese port of Sheliao and began punitive action against the Paivan aborigines.

The natives reacted to the Japanese in a quite unfriendly manner, and they gave rise to the opening of hostilities by killing several Japanese soldiers, who carelessly went for a walk away from the camp. The next day, General Saigo sent a detachment of troops into the mountains, which, having destroyed the village and massacred most of the male population of the village, returned to the camp with very few casualties. After that, many tribes laid down their arms and voluntarily surrendered to the Japanese. Just a few mountain villages remained hostile.

The desire to weaken the enemy with a decisive blow prompted Saigo to direct his power against them, as the most powerful and stubborn of all his opponents. On June 13, the Japanese army, divided into three groups, entered the hostile territory from different directions. The Japanese moved without encountering strong resistance. But their situation was not easy. Natural conditions seriously complicated their path: torrential rain, typical for this time of year, flooding of rivers and their rapid flow, lack of roads and unfamiliar area entailed many hardships and difficulties.

And the health of the members of the expedition was adversely affected by constant dampness, intense heat and exhausting work. Many fell ill with fever.

The highlanders avoided open combat, which was unequal for them, while firing at the Japanese with impunity from behind the inaccessible rocks, and disturbing them with unexpected attacks. The combat losses of the Japanese were rather small – only 12 men. But 561 Japanese soldiers died of malaria. The Qing dynasty demanded the immediate withdrawal of Japanese troops from Taiwan.

Terashima, who succeeded Soejima as foreign minister, fearing diplomatic complications, sent Japanese Ambassador Okubo Toshimichi to Nagasaki to suspend the expedition.

In August 1874, Okubo arrived in China, where he began negotiations with Zongliyamen (Foreign Ministry).

The parties were irreconcilable, and these negotiations came to an impasse. Eventually, a compromise was agreed upon with the mediation of the British ambassador to China, Thomas Wade.

China was preoccupied with preparations for war with Yettishar (a Muslim state in Xinjiang that emerged following the Dungan uprising).

On October 31, Japan and Qing concluded a truce, under which Japan had to withdraw its troops from Taiwan, and the Chinese had to pay compensation to injured Japanese sailors and relatives of the victims. It was the first international treaty to recognize Japan's sovereignty over the Ryukyu archipelago. The inhabitants of Ryukyu were now subjects of Japan.

They had to pay approximately 18.7 tons of silver to Japan as an indemnity plus twice as much again to compensate the families of the dead sailors.

In addition to this, they had to pay 75 tons of silver for expenses incurred by the Japanese government for laying roads and erecting buildings on the island.

From that time, the Qing authorities were responsible for policing all cases of sea robbery both on the island and in Chinese waters.

Japan provided Formosa to the Chinese and had to leave the island by December 20, 1874.

One day after the departure of the Japanese expedition, the camp was reduced to ashes, the Chinese burning everything they had bought, considering it to be humiliating to use.

In 1875, Taipei became the capital of northern Taiwan. In 1886 Taiwan was singled out as a separate province of China. The defeat in the war with the Japanese forced the Qing government to cede Taiwan to Japan in 1895.

Under the terms of the Shimonoseki Peace Treaty, Taiwan came under the control of the Japanese administration. Having settled on the island, the Japanese first began to study the local tribes.

They call these tribes "takasago" (as the Japanese read "gaoshan"). The Japanese conduct scientific research and classifications and took control of the island.

Following the outbreak of World War II, some villages were converted into paramilitary camps by the Japanese.

Thus, they prepared the local population for service in the Japanese army. Two raid companies were formed from the Aborigines under the command of Japanese commanders, who took part in the battles in the Pacific Ocean, New Guinea, and the Philippines.

They also took part in raids on the American airfield at Browen. During this raid, a Taiwanese suicide squad named "Kaoru Group" was supposed to blow up American planes. The task was only partially completed.

Generally, these Takasago units were distinguished by their good training and excellent fighting qualities.

Local patriots tried to organize Taiwan, as an independent state, “the Republic of Taiwan ". However, this attempt failed. The new Qing government was defeated in the war with the Japanese and ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895.

The intention of the Chinese to keep Taiwan for themselves by establishing the independent state " the Republic of Taiwan " was quickly suppressed by the Japanese. Taiwan, aka Formosa, was seized by the Japanese. For some time they were heroically resisted by both the Chinese and the aborigines, but modern firearms did their job. Rumour has it that the Japanese made an action movie on this event. Taiwan fit well with the Japanese concept of accretion by islands.

They tried to do everything to make the locals feel like subjects of the Empire of the Rising Sun. Some even believed in this, for example, Teruo Nakamura, one of those who had been hiding out in the jungle for many years after the war.

When he was discovered and captured, it turned out that nobody knew what to do with him. The Japanese patriot spoke neither Japanese nor Chinese. Eventually, he was granted a Japanese pension but was sent to Taiwan to live out his days.

From 1895 to 1945, there was a special period in the life of Taiwan.

At this time, the island was part of the Japanese Empire and was divided into several prefectures: Taihoku, Shinchiku, Tainan, Takao, Taichu, Hoko, Taito, Tarenko.